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Civilization of ancient Rome

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  • #1

    Civilization of ancient Rome






    Ancient Rome was a civilization emerged from a small farming
    community in the Italian peninsula at the beginning of the tenth century BC. Appeared along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and has become one of the largest empires of the ancient world [1].
    ROMANIAN turned civilization through its history of monarchy to oligarchy to the Republican empire increasingly authoritarian.Rome took control of the south-west Europe and Southeast Europe, the Balkans and the Mediterranean basin by the invasion and annexation.
    ROMANIAN Empire suffered instability and internal attacks of migratory peoples, and so today as the western part of the empire, including Italy and Hspaina and Gaul, Britain, Africa and the kingdoms formed an independent place in the fifth century AD.
    The Romanian Eastern Empire with its capital in Constantinople satisfaction to Greece and Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and survived the crisis. Despite the loss of Syria and Egypt before the armies of the Arab Islamic Empire of the Byzantine Empire continued for another millennium, until the fall of Constantinople, however, the Ottoman Empire of Turkey.
    Often classified within the civilization ROMANIAN "classical antiquity" with ancient Greece, which inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome.     Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of government and law, war, art, literature, architecture, technology, religion and language in the Western world and its history is still a significant impact on the world today.

    Establishment of the Kingdom ROMANIAN


    According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who was raised by a she - wolf.
    According to one legend, Rome was founded on April 21 / April 753 BC by the twin brothers descended from the Trojan Prince Aeneas. [2] Romulus and Ramos are the descendants of the Latin King, Numitor of Alba Longa. The expulsion of the king from his throne by his brother, while harsh Amulius Numitor daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth. [3] [4] and Rhea Silvia was the Immaculate Virgin who was raped in March, making the twins half divine. And feared the new king that the Romulus and Remus, the restoration of the throne, and therefore had to be drowned. [4] and rescued lupus (or wife of a shepherd in some reports), and raised them, and when matured enough, regained the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. [5] [ 6], then the foundations of the twin city, but Ramos was killed Romulus in a brawl that one of them ruled as King of Rome, though some sources said that the dispute was about the launch of their names on the city. [7] and then became the Romulus source of the name of the city. [8] and where that the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and took every girl is married, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines [9].
    The record of the Greek myth of Dionysus says that Prince led a group of people of Troy in a sea voyage. After a long period in a rough sea, settled on the banks of the River Tiber. It was not long after that they settled, even the men wanted to sail again, but women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. And suggested that one woman, called Rome, that women burn ships at sea to prevent them from leaving the country. Initially, men from the wrath of Rome, but soon realized that they are in an ideal location for stability. They named the colony on the name of the woman who burned their ships [10].
    Grew the city of Rome from settlements around a ford of the river Tiber, even a crossroads of traffic and trade. [5] According to the evidence of archaeological, founded the village of Rome at some time in the eighth century BC, although they may return to the tenth century BC, at the hands of Latin members of the tribe of Italy, on a hilltop Albulatiny. [11] [12] have dominated the Etruscans, who have already settled to the north in Etruria, politically on the region by the late seventh century BC, the composition of the elite aristocracy and the monarchy. But the Etruscans apparently lost power in the region by the late sixth century BC, and at this point, returned the original tribes of Latin and Sabine tribes establish their own government through the creation of the Republic, with a much greater restrictions on the ability of rulers to exercise power [13].
    Romanian traditions indicate, as well as archaeological evidence, to the complex within the Roman Forum, the seat of


    power of the king and the beginnings of religious centers there as well. The sleep Boumbelas is the second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus. Rome and started projects to build a large palace Alrgia Royal (Royal) and a complex pure virgins.





    Republic
    According to tradition, and later writers such as Levy, established the Republic of Romania about 509 BC, where the isolation of the last king of Rome, the seven Tarequen proud, was the establishment of a system based on the election of judges each year and various representatives of the association. [14] and the development of the Constitution a series of checks and balances, and separation of powers . The most important judges are Alguenslan, hunters who practiced together the executive power in the form of authority, or military command. [15] has been must work consuls with the Senate, which was initially an advisory council of leading nobles or patricians, but increased in size and strength with over time. [16] The other judicial bodies in the Republic include Albritor (Judge), injury, and Alkstor Officer (financial management). [17] The judicial offices originally restricted to patricians, but later expanded to include persons known, or the public.] 17] and included associations vote the Republic comitia centuriata {/ 1 (Leadership Council), which shall be voted on issues of war and peace, and the election of men to the most important positions, and {1} comitia tributa (tribal assembly), to elect the positions at least as important. [18]
    Took control of the Romans gradually to other peoples of the Italian peninsula, including Etruscans. [19] The last threat to the hegemony of the Romans in Italy, when recruited Taranto, a colony of great Greek, Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but these efforts also failed. [20] [21 ] The security of the Romans established their military campaigns ROMANIAN colonies in strategic areas, and to impose control on the stable region. [22], in the second half of the third century BC, Rome clashed with Carthage in the first of the three Punic wars. The result of this war for the first invasions of Rome by the Sea, Sicily and Spain, and sent Rome as an empire important. [23] [24] After the defeat of the Empire Macedonian Empire Alsellkih in the second century BC, the Roman people, the dominant Mediterranean. [25] [ 26]
    Foreign domination led to internal conflict. And became members of the Senate rich at the expense of the provinces, but the soldiers who were mostly small farmers, were away from home for a longer period and are unable to keep their lands, and resulted in increased reliance on slaves in foreign and the growth of lone large to the lack of paid work available. [27] [28] and created a revenue of war booty, and trade in the new provinces, and agricultural taxes, new economic opportunities for the wealthy, to form a new class of merchants, and knights. [29] may prevent the law of Claudia senators from engaging in trade, at a time can be theoretically join the Knights to the Senate, and was severely restricted in terms of political power. [29] [30] Senate fight all the time, repeatedly blocking important land reforms and the refusal to grant class equestrian word (authority) is the largest in the government. The violent gangs of unemployed in urban areas, controlled by the rival in the Senate, to intimidate voters through violence. The situation came to a peak in the late second century BC by the Gracie brothers, two pair of defenders of the people who tried to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute land to the main layer of aristocracy among the general public. And two brothers were killed, but the Senate approved some of their reforms, in an attempt to calm the growing unrest of the layers of the common people and knights. This has led to deny the Romanian citizenship of Italian cities allied to a war of social 91-88 BC. [31] also led military reforms carried out by Gaius Marius in many cases soldiers to increase their loyalty to their leader more than their loyalty to the city, where can the commander ( general) have a strong city and the redemption of the Senate. [32] This led to the outbreak of civil war between Marius and Sulla protector, culminating in the dictatorship of Sulla 81-79 BC [33].
    In the middle of the first century BC, the form of three men, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Krasas secret agreement - the first tripartite government - to control the Republic. After the invasion of France at the hands of Caesar, a showdown between Caesar and the Senate to the civil war, with the leadership of Pompey's forces to the Senate. Then defeated Caesar, and became dictator for life. [34] In 44 BC, was the assassination of Caesar from the senators who are opposed to Caesar's absolute power and wanted to restore constitutional rule, but in the wake of the government took three second, consisting of Caesar's heir-designate , Octavian and his former supporters, and Mark Antony and Lepidus, power. [35] [36] But this alliance soon slip into a struggle for control. Lepidus was denied, and when Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, became the ruler of Rome's largest



    Empire
    With the defeat of his enemies, made Octavian the name of August, and took almost absolute power, leaving only the appearance of a republican form of government. [38] and his designated successor, Tiberius, took power without serious opposition, and began a family Julio - Claudian, which lasted until the death of Nero in 68. [39] and continued regional expansion of what is now Empire Romanian, and the state remained secure, [40] Despite a series of emperors who looks at all of them on a large scale as a depraved and corrupt (for example, has been a debate that Caligula was crazy and famous Nero cruelty and interest in its affairs for more than affairs of state [41] followed their rule family Flavian. [42] In the era of "Emperors of the five good" (96-180), and reached the imperial peak of regional, economic and cultural rights. [43] and the state is safe from threats internal and external, and the Empire prospered during the Pax Romana ("Pax Romana"). [44] [45] and with the invasion of Dacia during the reign of Trajan, and reached the imperial peak of its territorial expansion; and extended the control of Rome, now 2.5 million square miles (6.5 million square kilometers).] 46] and led Antonian disaster that swept the Empire 165-180 AD to the death of an estimated five million people. [47]


    ROMANIAN Empire in the maximum extent under Trajan in 117 AD.
    The period between 193 and 235 was dominated by the family of Severan, and saw many of the rulers of incompetents, such as Gablas [48], and this led in addition to the growing influence of the army on imperial succession to the long period of the collapse of the empire and foreign invasions, known as the crisis of the third century.] 49] [50], and then ended the crisis by driving more efficient Deusletiaan, which divided the empire in 293 to half the east and west is governed by the Government of four of the two emperors of participants with two junior colleagues. [51] and compete with the various participants of the rulers of the Empire and fought for the rule for more than half a century.Assessed on May 11, 330, the Magic Planet Emperor Constantine I of Byzantium as the capital of the empire Romanian and re-renamed Constantinople. [52] has been the permanent division of the empire to the Empire ROMANIAN Eastern (later known as the Byzantine Empire) and the Empire, the Romanian Bank in 395. [53]
    Have been the imperial West constantly harassed by the invasions of the barbarians, and the continued collapse of the western empire gradually over the centuries. [54] In the fourth century, caused the migration to the west of the Huns in the search Visigoths refuge within the borders of the empire of Romania. [55], and in 410, isolate the Visigoths, led by Alaric I, the city of Rome itself. [56] also conquered Vandals provinces ROMANIAN in France, Spain, North Africa, and assessed 455 overran Rome. [57] In September 4476, forced the German President Auduasir Roman Emperor the last West, Romulus August, to abdicate. [58] and continued after about 1200 years old, arrived in the rule of Rome in the west to the end. [59]
    Empire East has suffered the same fate, but not as harsh.Where he succeeded Justinian in the restoration of North Africa and Italy for a short period, but the property is the Byzantine Empire in the West, turned to Southern Italy and Sicily within a few years after the death of Justinian. [60] In the east, resulting in partial destruction resulting from the disaster of Justinian, to threaten the Byzantines from the advent of Islam, where invaded his territory quickly in Syria and Egypt and soon became a direct threat to Constantinople. [61] [62] However, the work of the Byzantines to stop the expansion of Islam in their lands during the eighth century, but in the beginning of the nineteenth century dominion response parts of the territories conquered. [61 [63] and in 1000 was the Eastern Empire at its peak: Basilias second re-opening of Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture flourished, and trade. [64] However, shortly after the expansion stops suddenly in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. This eventually led to the tragic collapse of the empire. Assessed ultimately led several centuries of internal conflict and the Turkish invasions to pave the way for the Emperor Aleksas first Cominas to send a request for assistance from the West in 1095. [61] and responded to the West with the Crusades, which ultimately led to the looting of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade. Shows the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 Retail little the rest of the Empire to the countries of the caliphs, and the final victory of the mandate of Nicaea [65] After the capture of Constantinople by the forces of the empire, the empire was a little less of the Greek state confined to the Aegean coast.Eastern Empire and ended when Mehmed II invaded Constantinople in May 29, 1453




    الكلمات الدلالية (Tags): archaeological, architecture, constantinople, mediterranean, technology
  • #2
    Community

    The city is the empire of Rome's largest center for the cities at the time, and a population of about one million people (about the size of London in the early 19 th century, when London was the largest city in the world), with some high end estimated 14 million low-end estimated at 450.000. [67 [68] [69] and were full of public places in Rome with the noise of hooves and the jingle-wheel vehicles, rail vehicle wheels, where Julius Caesarproposed a ban on vehicular traffic during the day. The historical estimates that about 20 percent of the population is under the control of ancient Rome (25-40%, depending on the criteria used in Italy, Romania [70] living in a myriad of urban centers,census population 10,000 or more and a number of militarycolonies, a very high rate of urbanization in advance industry standards. most of these centers by the public square, templesand buildings of similar style, on a smaller scale, than those in    Rome.




    Class structure


    The area under the control of Romanian ([82] [83] [84] [85] [86]
    Romanian society is seen largely as a hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and citizens are free generators (cives) at the summit. The free citizens themselves are also divided into classes. The division and extensive, and the closest, among the patricians, who can trace their ancestry back to one of 100 the Patriarch at the founding of the city, and the public who can not. This became less important later in the Republic, because some families have become rich in the public and entered the world of politics, and some aristocratic families hit hard times. Any person, whether aristocratic or of the public, the consul in advance to him is a noble (Nobilis), the man who was the first family to bear the title of the consulate, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo ("new man"), and the noble and his descendants.Still, given the status of aristocratic descent, large, and still many religious positions are limited to aristocrats.
    Became the stratification on the basis of military service are more important. And determine the membership of these classes on a regular basis by the censors, according to the property. The richest layer is the members of the Senate, who dominated the political life and leadership of the army. Followed by the cavalry (equites, sometimes translated "knights", who can in the original afford Jawad war, and who make up the class, strong business. And there are more classes, on the basis of military equipment that can members afford, and followed, the proletariat (workers) of citizens who have no property at all, at the bottom. who they were before the reforms of Marius is not eligible for military service, often described as barely above freed slaves in terms of wealth and status.
    Adopted the voting power in the Republic of the class. And registered citizens to vote, "tribal", but the tribes of the rich classes of members is less than the poorest, are recorded proletarian gather them in one tribe. The vote is in the order of a class as soon as the majority of the tribes, and so are the poor, often unable even to cast their ballots.
    Given to foreign cities allied in many cases, the Latin right, on the average level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), allowing its citizens rights under Roman law and allows senior judges to obtain the absolute right of the Romanian citizenship.Although there were varying degrees of rights, Latin was the main division between the cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in the tribe a Roman and was able to participate in the tribe) and sin suffragio ("without a vote," is unable to participate in the political life of the Romanian ). Been awarded some of the Italian allies of Rome the right to full citizenship after the Social War of 91-88 BC, and extended the right of Romanian citizenship to all the men who were born free in the Empire by Caracalla in 212.And women participated in some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not considered full citizens and therefore not entitled to vote or participate in political life.

    Family
    The basic units of society are the Roman families and clans. [71] and include family-based households (usually the father), head of the family (father of the family), and his wife, children and other relatives. In the upper classes, the slaves and servants are also part of the family. [71] and was head of the family enjoying a great (parental authority, "authority of the father") more than those who live with him: he is forced to marry (for the money usually), and divorce, and the sale of children of slavery, and his followers claim to property Kmmtlkath, but has the right to punish or kill family members (and if this latter right in what appears to no longer exercises after the first century BC). [72]
    Parental authority, which extended also to the senior children with their families: the man is not considered the head of the family, but when it becomes truly able to hold property, in the life of his father. [72] [73] During the beginning of the history of Rome, underwent a daughter, when she married, under thecontrol (manus) of her husband, head of the family, although at the end of the Republic of different shape, where a woman can choose to continue to recognize the family of her father Kosartha real or not. [74] However, calculated as the Romans descent through men, no children Stnjbha will belong to the family of her husband. [75]
    Form groups of households connected to the clan (gens). The tribes on the ties of blood or adoption, but also political and economic alliances. Especially in the Republic of Romania, ruled some of the powerful families, or Gentes Maiores (Maioraz of a family), to control the political life.
    Ancient Roman marriage was often the Federation of Mali, is more political than romantic association, especially in the upper layers. And usually starts find pairs of parents for their daughters when they reach the age of between twelve and fourteen. And the husband is often older than the bride. While upper class girls married a very small, and there is evidence that lower class women often married in the late teenage years or early twenties.

    Government
    At first, Rome was ruled by kings, who are elected from each of the major tribes in Rome in turn. [81] and the nature of the king's authority is uncertain. Where they may have near-absolute authority, or it may just be the CEO of the Senate and the people. At least in military issues, to become the king's authority (Imperium) was likely absolute. He was also president of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the king, there were three administrative boards: the Senate, which is an advisory body to the king; Comitia Curiata, who can support and ratification of the laws proposed by King and Comitia Calata, who was the Council from a pool of priests that can bring people to be witnesses to some work, hear the statements, and the announcement of the Eid religious, and the schedule for a holiday next month.
    Resulted in the unusual class struggle in the Republic of Romania to the combination of democracy and the rule of the minority. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica which literally translates to public business. Where the passage of laws ROMANIAN usually after gathering the majority of the popular (Comitia Tributa). Similarly, candidates for public positions must nominate themselves for election by the people.However, the Roman Senate represents the association of minority rule, which serves as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate enjoyed great authority (auctoritas), but there is no real conflict of the legislative authority, and technically only an advisory board. But, as the members of the Senate, both very impressive individually, it was difficult to achieve anything against the collective will of the Senate. Are selected members of the Senate, the new of the most important patricians's sophisticated by the Censors (Censura), which could fire the senator from office if found it "unsound", a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato Great, another Mtaangh wife to the public. Later, in the context of the reforms undertaken by the dictator Sulla, is set Alkstor (Romanian employees a valuable financial management) are automatically members of the Senate, despite the fact that most of these reforms have not left.
    Not specify the Republic of bureaucracy, and the collection of taxes through the practice of agricultural taxes. The government sites such as quaestor, injury, or agent of the ruling of the Supreme head of the finance sector, the private funds. In order to prevent any citizen from obtaining more authorities, the new judges are elected annually, and they share power with a colleague. For example, under normal circumstances, the highest authority in the hands of two consuls. In cases of emergency, is assigned a temporary dictator. In all parts of the Republic, the administrative system has been modified several times to comply with the new demands. In the end, it proved ineffective to control the expansion of the control of Rome, and contribute to the establishment of the Romanian Empire.
    At the beginning of the empire, were preserved in the form of republican government. The Roman Emperor portrayed Kalqaúd (I) or "first citizen", and has gained the Senate legislative power and legal authority, all of which was controlled by the mass gatherings. However, the more authoritarian rule of emperors over time, and turned the Senate into an advisory body appointed by the emperor. Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, The Republic did not by any formation of a permanent government, regardless of the Senate.The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as the central budget planned.Some historians have stated that this is one important reason for the collapse of the Romanian Empire.

    تعليق

    • #3
      Law
      Can be traced the roots of the legal principles and practices ofthe Romans to the ancient law of the Twelve Table (of 449 BC)to the codification of Emperor Constantine I (about 530 AD).Roman law and kept the symbols of Constantine to continue in the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis for similar codes in Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, thatapplied in most parts of Europe until the end of the 17th century.
      Made up major parts of the law of ancient Rome, as containedwithin the symbols of the law of Justinian and Theodosian, of the Civil Code, the Folk Law and natural law. And the civil law ("law of the citizen") the infrastructure of the general laws that apply tocitizens, the Romans. [82] and "Albritor urban" (ie, judges in urban areas) are individuals who enjoy the Sultan judicialresolution of issues relating to citizens. The Folk Law ("law of nations") is the infrastructure of the laws that apply to foreigners, and their dealings with citizens, the Romans. [71] and "Albritormobile" (ie, judge, mobile) are individuals who enjoy the Sultanjudicial resolution of issues relating to citizens and foreigners.Natural law and natural law includes, a set of laws that are common       among all.

      Economy
      Template: RomanMilitary led ancient Rome a large area of ​​land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy was based on agriculture and trade. And free trade have changed the landscape of Italian agriculture, and by the first century BC, came from large U.S. grape and olive farms Aleomanah place that you can not keep up with prices of imported grain. And provided each of Egypt, Tunisia, Sicily and North Africa, attached to a continuous supply of grain. Assessed the other hand, the olive oil and wine exports of Italy Home. It was also the practice of crop rotation on two levels, but the overall agricultural productivity is low, about 1 ton per hectare.
      The activities of industry and manufacturing was small. The largest of these activities are mining and stone quarries, which provide basic building materials of the buildings in that period. In the area of ​​manufacturing, production was relatively small-scale, usually consisting of workshops and small factories that use dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employing hundreds of workers.
      Economy of the Republic adopted a preliminary to a large extent on the basis of the small-business and paid. However, wars and foreign invasions made slaves are plentiful and cheap, increasingly, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor to work both skilled and the unskilled.Estimated as slaves formed about 20% of the population of the Romanian Empire at this time and 40% in the city of Rome.However, the Romanian Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, employment has become more economical than slave ownership.
      Although the barter system was used in ancient Rome, and is often used in the collection of taxes, and put Rome currency system is very advanced, using the currency of copper, bronze, and coins of precious metals and circulation throughout the Empire, but discovered some of them in India. Before the third century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in blocks of unmarked, through the center of Italy. And have the original copper coins (as) Bugea the value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, beyond the benefit of the Romanian capital as a share value of the actual metal. After Nero began debasing the silver dirham, has become the largest legal value estimated about a third of actual value.
      Horses were too expensive, and other groups of animals is very slow, the huge trade on Romanian roads, which link the centers rather than military markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, the transport of goods between regions ROMANIAN little until the advent of the Romanian maritime trade in the second century BC. During that period, to take commercial ships less than a month to complete the journey from Cadiz to Alexandria Ossetia, stretching along the Mediterranean as a whole. [46] where the transport by sea is cheaper by about 60 times the land transport, because the size of these trips more much.
      Some economists such as Peter Temin that the Romanian economy, trade empire, highly similar to the practices of capitalism in the 17th century in the Netherlands and the 18 th century in England




      Military affairs


      A modern version of the type segmentata Rica and armor
      Army was the first Roman (500 BC), like other states influenced by contemporary Greek civilization, a citizen militia which practiced tactics Alhblat. It's a small (population of males free at the age of military service, about 9,000), and organized in five chapters (in a line parallel to comitia centuriata (Association percent fighters), a regulator of the citizens politically), with three Hblat saving and two infantry spiritual saving . The Roman army first limited tactical position during this period was on the defensive in the first place. [84] By the third century BC, gave the Romans the formation Alhblat in favor of a more flexible system of smaller groups of 120 men (or in some cases 60) is called fragmentation Roman can exercise more independence on the battlefield. And a handful thirtieth arranged in three lines with the Corps support forces, totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.And the Corps of the Republican the first of five sections, each equipped with a different way and different places in the form: three lines from the horde of infantry heavy (hastati, principes and triarii) and a force of light infantry (velites) and cavalry (equites). And came up with the new organization a new direction about the attack and a more aggressive posture toward the neighboring countries. [85]
      Nominal full force, the Corps included the first Republican to 3.600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalry, a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men. [86], has suffered in many of the legions cases of loss of power to a large extent a result of the failure of recruitment or following periods of active service due to accidents, injuries and fighting the disease and desertion. During the civil war, the legions of Pompey in the Middle full strength because they are newly appointed, while Caesar's legions were in many cases less than a token force after a long period of active service in France. This pattern also applies to auxiliary forces. [87]
      Until the late Republican period, the typical Alvegay is the property of the owner of the citizen farmer from a rural area (adsiduus) who served in the campaigns of particular (and often annual) [88], which provides special equipment, and Rcopth private, in the case of knights. Harris suggested that up to 200 BC, the average farmer in the countryside (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Did not serve all of the freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and citizens in urban areas except in rare emergencies. [89] and after about 200 BC, deteriorated economic conditions in rural areas to increase the manpower requirements, and therefore decreased the qualifications of property for the service gradually. Starting with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, has been recruiting citizens without property and some citizens who live in urban areas (proletarii and provide them with equipment, although most of the members of the Corps continued to come from rural areas. Where the service has been continuous and long up to twenty years in a state of emergency Although Brandt claims that six or seven years, was more common. [90] Starting from the third century BC, has been paid salaries for members of the Corps (the dispute on the amount, but the Caesar's "doubling" reward his troops to 225 'denarii per year) , and can anticipate the spoils and grants (distributions spoils of the leaders) of the successful campaigns, and begin at the time of Marius, has often been allocated land grant upon retirement. [91] and are recruited cavalry and light infantry associated with KPC (auxilia) of the areas served by the Corps. The the form of Caesar's Legion, and the fifth Alaudae, non-citizens in the Alps France to serve in his campaigns in France. [92] By the age of Augustus Caesar, was given up to imagine soldiers, citizens, and became the legions professional completely. has been paid 900 "Sistrs" of the Corps in can be expected to pay at retirement Sistrs 12.000 [93].
      At the end of the civil war, he organized in August the Romanian armed forces, the demobilization of soldiers and the conduct of the legions. And retained 28 of the legions, spread through the provinces of the empire. [94] During the era of equality, continued regulation of the military in the tactical evolution. The assistance has been an independent battalion, and worked Corps forces often as groups of battalions rather than the hordes complete. A new multi-unit, cohortes equitatae, cavalry corps gathered in one formation to be garrisons or outposts, could fight alone as agents of a small balanced, or it can combine with other similar units as the largest-sized force the Corps. This helped the increase in organizational flexibility over time to ensure the long-term success of the Romanian military forces. [95]
      Emperor began Jalins (253-268 AD) a reorganization that created the final military structure of the empire of the final.Some of the legions were withdrawn from the fixed bases on the border, and established Jalins mobile forces (the Comitatenses or field armies) and their focus back and at a distance from the border if they were a strategic reserve. The border troops were stationed (limitanei) fixed in the rules and continued to be the first line of defense. The basic unit of the Army of the field is "Vogue" and legions of infantry or assistance and fighters for the Knights. Evidence suggests that the nominal strength of 1200 men and 600 infantry battalion of cavalry, although many records show an actual decrease in the number of troops (800 and 400).And works a lot of infantry and cavalry regiments in pairs under the leadership comes. Add to the Romanian forces, including armies of the field regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as the foederati. By the year 400 AD, the foederati regiments and units of the Roman army a permanent, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by the Romanian People's Advocate and used as the units used ROMANIAN. In addition to foederati, Empire used groups of barbarians to fight side by side with the legions of "allies" without integration of the armies in the field. Under the leadership of Supreme Commander of the Roman general present, their leadership was at the minimum levels of their officers. [96]
      Military leadership evolved greatly during the history of Rome.Under the monarchy, was driven by Hblat armies of the kings of Rome. In the early Republic, Romania and the middle one, the military forces under the command of one of the two consuls elected for the year. Assessed the late republic, served the elite members of the Roman Senate, as part of the natural progression of elected public positions, known as the cursus honorum, first quaestor (which are often published as vice commanders in the field), then praetor. Following the expiration of the praetor or consul, the appointment of a member of the Senate by the Senate as Britor (provincial governor) or Broguensal (according to the highest office in the past) to the rule of a foreign county. Then be selected younger officers (but not to the including the level of Centurion) at the hands of their leaders clientelae or those recommended by the political allies among the elite of the Senate. [97] In August, the most important political priorities for the development of the army under unified command and durable, and the emperor was the legal commander of the Corps, but all that exercise leadership through legatus (Pope) of the Senate appointed elite. In one region with the Corps, envoy will lead the Corps (legatus legionis), and also serves as governor of the province, while in the province of more of the Legion, all of the legion will be led by the Pope and the delegates will be under the leadership of the provincial governor), but also delegates from the rank of top) . [98] During the final stages of the imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), was abandoned Augustan model.Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and the leadership of a group of armies in the provinces and the generals (leaders') appointed by the emperor. These are no longer members of the Romanian elite, but the man who came through the ranks and saw many of the recruitment process. With increasing frequency, and try these men (and sometimes successfully) and the acquisition of sites from the emperors, who designated them. Decreasing resources, increasing political chaos and civil war in the western end of the Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples. [99]
      Relatively less is known about the Romanian marine Roman army. Before the middle of the 3rd century BC, known as the Maritime officials duumviri command a fleet of ships used in the first place twenty to control piracy. This was the fleet in 278 AD and was replaced by coalition forces. The first Punic War Rome require building large fleets, and did so largely with the help of funding from the Allies. This reliance on allies and lasted until the end of the Republic of Romania. Quinquireme is the main reason and warships on both sides of the Punic wars and form the backbone of the Romanian Navy until replaced by the time Caesar Augustus, lighter and more maneuverable ships through.Compared with the ship, quinquireme allows the use of a combination of experience and expertise of the crew members (a key feature for generating electricity based on the ground), and less of the maneuver allowed the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of nearly 40 Marines instead of the Ram. Ships led navarch, which is equivalent to the rank of Centurion, who are often non-citizens. Potter suggests that the fleet is dominated by the Romans, and the navy was considered non-Romanian and allowed to atrophy in time of peace [100].
      Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), and the Romanian Navy and includes a number of warships, including each of the fleets of merchant ships, transportation and logistics. The warships sailing paddled panels with three to five banks of the crew. These include the Fleet ports of Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, and Misenum the mouth of the River Somme in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the east. Small fleet of small river craft (classes) are part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based in the fortified ports along the River Rhine and the Danube River. The fact that prominent generals command armies and fleets of both indicates that the naval forces of the deal as a help to the army and not as an independent state. Details of the command structure and fleet strengths during this period is not known although it is known that fleets were commanded by the conservatives.]




      Language
      The national language of the Romans is the Latin, the language of Italian with dependent rules a little on the order of the word, and the transfer of meaning through a system of subsequent related Bjdhir word. [102] and based alphabet language alphabet Alatriurah, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. [103] In spite of the that Latin literature rest is composed almost entirely of Classical Latin, the language of literature, artificial very ornate style and polished from the first century BC, the language spoken in virtually Empire Romanian Latin vernacular, which differ significantly from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and finally in pronunciation [104].
      Latin continued as the main language written in the Romanian empire, Greek became the language spoken by well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans, written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Empire ROMANIAN, which later became the Byzantine Empire were not Latin can never take the place of Greek, after the death of Constantine, the Greek the official language of the Government of the Byzantine. [105] The expansion of the empire ROMANIAN to the spread of Latin throughout Europe and, over time, evolved dialect and colloquial Latin stirred controversy in different locations, and gradually turned into a number of distinct Romance languages

      Religion
      Religion, ancient Roman, at least with respect Blalhh, and was composed of the documents are not written, as well as it was mutually beneficial relationships between gods and humans. [106] is different from Greek mythology, the gods and of an impersonal, but they are known ambiguity of the Holy Spirit and claims numina. Roman also believes that every person, place or thing has private genius, or divine spirit. During the Republic ROMANIAN, ROMANIAN organized religion in the context of a strict system of priestly offices, which are held by men of the Senate. Pontifices College was the highest body in the government of the priests, the priest and was its president, Buntivks Maximus, the head of state and religion. Watch Flamen of the gods of various denominations, while the trust to take the fortune teller to predict. King came to the decision of the sacred responsibilities of religious kings. In the era of empire, Romanian, and emperors held the existence of deities [citation needed], and became a formalization of the empire increasingly prominent.
      The more contact with the Greek gods became old Romanian increasingly linked to the Greek gods. [107] And so it was Giopetr seen himself as a deity such as Zeus, in March became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. ROMANIAN gods also assumed the attributes and myths of the Greek gods.Under the Empire absorbed the Roman myths of subjects that are conquered, and often lead to situations in which the priests of the temples of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with these foreign deities. [108] and from the Emperor Nero was the official policy, the Romanian Christian and negative, and on some points, can Agaqub to death for simply being a Christian.In the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became officially supports the Romanian state religion under Constantine I, and became dominant. The banned all religions, but Christianity in 391 AD by decree of Emperor Theodosius I.
      Scientific studies
      In the study of ancient Rome arose during the Enlightenment in France. Charles Montesquieu wrote Reflections on the work and the reasons for the deviation from the grandeur of the Romans.First work is the history of the Decline and Fall of the Empire by Edward Gibbon ROMANIAN, which covers the period from the end of the 2nd century of the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Such as Montesquieu, Gibbon paid for my highest appreciation for the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold George Niebuhr was the founder of the Romanian study of ancient history and Roman history books, followed by a period until the First Punic War. Niebuhr has made an attempt to determine the manner in which the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, and the Romans, and like the rest of the people, and has historically been the spirit that was mainly to maintain the noble families. During the Napoleonic period the work titled History of the Romans by Victor Duruy seems. The report highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, the Romanian constitutional law and Inscriptionum Latinarum Corpus, and foremost, Theodor Mommsen, and it became very important milestones. Work later in the grandeur of Rome and rejected by Guglielmo Ferrero post. Russia working Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи (ROMANIAN lines on the land and history, especially during the Empire) Ivan Grevs contains information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners in the end of the Republic.



      Games and activities
      Young Rome several forms of play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing. [117] In the countryside, and entertainment for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting. [118] The Romans had several forms of playing the ball, similar to handball. [117] dice game or documents, and the Board of Directors for the BC game, games, gambling is very popular entertainment. [117] Women did not participate in these activities. For the rich, and dinner parties the opportunity for fun, and sometimes include music and dance, and poetry readings. [119] Plebeians similar in some cases with the parties or through clubs and societies, although the food entertainment usually means care bar s. [119] children's recreation and play with such These games also jumped. [118] [119]
      There is a form of popular entertainment was a gladiator fighting ial. Gladiators fought either to death, or that the "first blood" with a variety of weapons and a variety of different scenarios. This battle has achieved high popularity under the emperor Claudius, who placed the final outcome of combat power in the hands of the emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary to popular protests in the film, and many experts believe that this gesture is not to die, "objected." Although no one is certain, according to suggestions by some experts to conclude that the emperor and the carrying of "death" by holding a raised fist fighters to win and then extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" and he pointed to a raised with the grip does not extension of his will. [120] Animal shows are also popular Romans, where foreign animals were either displayed to the public, or a combination of anti-skin.Prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, and was in the arena and animals.
      The circus, and other popular site in Rome, and was used primarily for horse and cart racing, and when the circus was flooded, there could be battles of the sea. Has also been used in many other events. [121] the circus may include up to 385.000 people; [122] people all over to visit Rome. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one with seven dolphins, lay in the heart of the path of Maximus, and whenever the racers made a roll and one of each will be removed. This was done to keep the viewers and the contestants knew the race statistics. For non-sporting, Maximus is also the field of marketing and gambling.Higher authorities, such as the emperor, also attended the match in the circus, because it is considered polite to avoid the audience. Higher authorities, and the Knights, and a lot of people who participated in the race, sat in reserved seats located above all. He said also that it is appropriate that the emperors for the benefit of a particular team. The Maximus was created in 600 BC and hosted the last horse racing game 549-AD, after more than usual always the millennium.




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        Roman technological achievements

        Ancient Rome boasted of great technological triumphs, using many of the developments that will be lost in the Middle Ages, and again not rivaled until the 19th and 20th centuries. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted in the earlier Greek designs. Progress in many times, and divided on the basis of the craft. Groups of artisans jealously guard the new technologies of the trade secret s. [Citation needed] ROMANIAN engineering, as well as military engineering ROMANIAN constitute a large part of Rome's technological advantage and heritage, and helped build hundreds of roads and bridges, and a second channel, baths, theaters and arena s. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and important people, as there is still evidence of the Romanian engineering, and culture.
        Romans are renowned for their special structure, which is in Group B with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture".Although there are many differences of Greek architecture, borrowed heavily from Rome and Greece to adhere to strict, formal and percentage of construction and design. As well as two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, from the dome, which derives from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.


        The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road that connects the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.
        1st century BC, the Romans started to use concrete on a large scale. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. Was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building materials and a lot of courage allows architectural plan. As in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the first article in full for the structure in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glass-blowing early after the invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaic BC took the Empire by storm after extracting the samples through the CEOS Cornelius Sulla / campaigns in Greece. Article history Roman concrete
        Concrete enabled the cradle of Romanian and permanent roads, many of which are still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. Building large and efficient travel throughout the network a significant increase in the empire of Rome and the power and influence. Was originally to allow the Roman legion's to be deployed quickly. But these highways also of huge economic importance, and the consolidation of the role of Rome as a crossroads of trade routes between the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome." The Romanian government stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads and the construction of bridges and, where appropriate, and establish a system of the horse together to courier the documents that allowed to travel to send up to 800 kilometers (500 miles) in 24 hours.


        Pont du Gard in France is the Romanian built in the channel c.19 BC. A World Heritage Site.





        Romans built many of the channels to provide water for cities and industrial sites and assistance in agriculture. Provided by the city of Rome with 11 channels, common along the 350 km (220 miles). [123] and most of the channels constructed under the surface, only small parts above the ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 meters (165 feet) and had to be overcome inverted water absorbs the force was used hard. [1] The Romans also major developments in health facilities. Romans famous private and public baths, called thermae, which was used in both health and social. Many of the homes ROMANIAN came to the documents and flush toilet buildings and plumbing, and complex, and sewage system, drain the Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste ES in the River Tiber. Some historians have speculated that the use of lead in pipes and sewage systems, water pipes has led to widespread lead poisoning, which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading to the fall of Rome. However, the lead content to a minimum could be due to the flow of water from the channels can not be stopped, but contrary to continuously through the ports, public and private sewers, and only a small number of taps to use.


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