A magnetometer is an instrument that measures Magnetic Flux Density, the unit for which is the Tesla. The Earth generates a relatively strong magnetic field which produces flux densities (in air) between a low of about 18 microTesla near South America, to a high of over 60 microTesla in the Arctic Circle.
Because magnetic flux density in air is directly proportional to magnetic field, a magnetometer can detect fluctuations in the Earth's field. These fluctuations may be caused by activity within the molten core of the Earth, by Solar activity, or by ionic storms from space. In addition to these dynamic variations, static anomalies in the Earth's magnetic map may be caused by different materials present in the Earth's crust.
Materials that distort magnetic flux lines are known as magnetic, and include materials such as magnetite that possess magnetic fields of their own, as well as metals such as nickel that are extremely magnetically conductive. Materials like this create distortions in the Earth's magnetic flux that is flowing around them. These distortions can be detected by magnetometers.
A magnetometer can measure magnetic flux density at the point in space that the sensor is located. Since a distortion generated by a magnetic object drops in intensity with the cube of the distance, the distance that a given magnetometer can detect that object is directly proportional to the cube root of the magnetometer's sensitivity, which is commonly measured in nanoTesla, or gamma (the non-SI unit that many geophysicists commonly use).
Magnetic flux density is a vector, meaning it has a direction as well as a magnitude. Magnetometers may be broken into two categories that vary dramatically in both functionality and principle of operation. These are vector magnetometers that measure the flux density value in a specific direction in 3-space, and scalar magnetometers which measure only the magnitude of the vector passing through a sensor regardless of direction.
Vector Magnetometers
Hall - Effect, The Hall Effect is an electromagnetic phenomenon that occurs in semiconductive materials, such as Silicon. Take for instance a block of this material in which current is flowing in the x direction. If a magnetic field is applied in the y direction, a secondary current will be induced in the z direction. This induced current can be stopped by applying a cancelling electric field in the z direction, and can be expressed by the relation EZ = RHJXBY. In other words, the cancelling field EZ is proportional to the current density JX, the magnetic flux density BY, and the Hall Coefficient RH. The magnitude of the Hall Coefficient is inversely proportional to the carrier concentration in the semiconductor, and its sign depends on whether the material is n-type or p-type.
Hall Effect Sensors have the distinct advantages of being small, require very little power to operate, and are inexpensive to manufacture in large quantities. However, their sensitivity is limited to the microTesla order of magnitude; several orders of magnitude too coarse to detect anomailies in the Earth's field.
Flux Gates
A flux gate is an inductive coil that is wound around a core material of precisely known magnetic properties. By passing an electric current through the coil, the core material can be taken through its magnetic hysterisis loop (of applied magnetic field vs. induced magnetism which can be measured as the inductance of the coil). If an external magnetic field is applied to the coil in the direction of the coil, the core's hysterisis loop will be altered, and this change can be measured by simple Voltage and current measurement sensors.
A flux gate magnetometer can measure magnetic field in a specific direction quite precisely. However, it takes three independent flux gate coils to measure total field by adding the three independent vectors. Because of mechanical limitations, the precision of orientation of the three coils with respect to one another limits a flux gate magnetometer's sensitivity to 0.1nT, for very high end instruments. However, flux gates do have the advantage of measuring the direction of the magnetic field as well as its value.
Scalar Magnetometers - Nuclear Precession
Nuclear precession magnetometers stimulate (polarize) the atomic nuclei of a substance causing the nuclei to spin (the correct term is precess) temporarily around a new axis. As the behaviour of the nuclei returns to normal, the frequency of precession of the nuclei is measured, and can be correlated to magnetic flux density.
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Because magnetic flux density in air is directly proportional to magnetic field, a magnetometer can detect fluctuations in the Earth's field. These fluctuations may be caused by activity within the molten core of the Earth, by Solar activity, or by ionic storms from space. In addition to these dynamic variations, static anomalies in the Earth's magnetic map may be caused by different materials present in the Earth's crust.
Materials that distort magnetic flux lines are known as magnetic, and include materials such as magnetite that possess magnetic fields of their own, as well as metals such as nickel that are extremely magnetically conductive. Materials like this create distortions in the Earth's magnetic flux that is flowing around them. These distortions can be detected by magnetometers.
A magnetometer can measure magnetic flux density at the point in space that the sensor is located. Since a distortion generated by a magnetic object drops in intensity with the cube of the distance, the distance that a given magnetometer can detect that object is directly proportional to the cube root of the magnetometer's sensitivity, which is commonly measured in nanoTesla, or gamma (the non-SI unit that many geophysicists commonly use).
Magnetic flux density is a vector, meaning it has a direction as well as a magnitude. Magnetometers may be broken into two categories that vary dramatically in both functionality and principle of operation. These are vector magnetometers that measure the flux density value in a specific direction in 3-space, and scalar magnetometers which measure only the magnitude of the vector passing through a sensor regardless of direction.
Vector Magnetometers
Hall - Effect, The Hall Effect is an electromagnetic phenomenon that occurs in semiconductive materials, such as Silicon. Take for instance a block of this material in which current is flowing in the x direction. If a magnetic field is applied in the y direction, a secondary current will be induced in the z direction. This induced current can be stopped by applying a cancelling electric field in the z direction, and can be expressed by the relation EZ = RHJXBY. In other words, the cancelling field EZ is proportional to the current density JX, the magnetic flux density BY, and the Hall Coefficient RH. The magnitude of the Hall Coefficient is inversely proportional to the carrier concentration in the semiconductor, and its sign depends on whether the material is n-type or p-type.
Hall Effect Sensors have the distinct advantages of being small, require very little power to operate, and are inexpensive to manufacture in large quantities. However, their sensitivity is limited to the microTesla order of magnitude; several orders of magnitude too coarse to detect anomailies in the Earth's field.
Flux Gates
A flux gate is an inductive coil that is wound around a core material of precisely known magnetic properties. By passing an electric current through the coil, the core material can be taken through its magnetic hysterisis loop (of applied magnetic field vs. induced magnetism which can be measured as the inductance of the coil). If an external magnetic field is applied to the coil in the direction of the coil, the core's hysterisis loop will be altered, and this change can be measured by simple Voltage and current measurement sensors.
A flux gate magnetometer can measure magnetic field in a specific direction quite precisely. However, it takes three independent flux gate coils to measure total field by adding the three independent vectors. Because of mechanical limitations, the precision of orientation of the three coils with respect to one another limits a flux gate magnetometer's sensitivity to 0.1nT, for very high end instruments. However, flux gates do have the advantage of measuring the direction of the magnetic field as well as its value.
Scalar Magnetometers - Nuclear Precession
Nuclear precession magnetometers stimulate (polarize) the atomic nuclei of a substance causing the nuclei to spin (the correct term is precess) temporarily around a new axis. As the behaviour of the nuclei returns to normal, the frequency of precession of the nuclei is measured, and can be correlated to magnetic flux density.
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